Algebra, algorithm and Uzbekistan

A page from al-Khwārizmī's Algebra (source)

The words "algebra" and "algorithm" were introduced to Latin Christendom through the 12th century Latin translation of the works of a Persian polymath, born in Khwarezm (in present day Uzbekistan), and working in the House of Wisdom in Baghdad during the Abbasid Caliphate.

He is al-Khwarizmi ("from Khwarezm", c.780-850) (Algoritmi in Latin, hence "algorithm"), a mathematician, geographer, and astronomer.

Algebra and Algorithm happen to be two subjects of which I have a modest degree of mastery. Their history illustrates the role of the Islamic civilization in bridging the Classical Greco-Roman world and the High Middle Ages and beyond.

As expected, there is an impressive Wikipedia article on al-Khwarizmi (here), where we learn the following:

In the twelfth century, Latin translations of al-Khwarizmi's work on the Indian numerals, introduced the decimal positional number system to the Western world.  His Compendious Book on Calculation by Completion and Balancing presented the first systematic solution of linear and quadratic equations in Arabic. In Renaissance Europe, he was considered the original inventor of algebra, although we now know that his work is based on older Indian or Greek sources.  He revised Ptolemy's Geography and wrote on astronomy and astrology.

Some words reflect the importance of al-Khwarizmi's contributions to mathematics. "Algebra" is derived from al-jabr, one of the two operations he used to solve quadratic equations. Algorism and algorithm stem from Algoritmi, the Latin form of his name. His name is also the origin of (Spanish) guarismo and of (Portuguese) algarismo, both meaning digit.

His name may indicate that he came from Khwarezm (Khiva), then in Greater Khorasan, which occupied the eastern part of the Greater Iran, now Xorazm Province in Uzbekistan. Abu Rayhan Biruni calls the people of Khwarizm "a branch of the Persian tree"

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Further interesting facts: Khwarezm, a region to the south of the Aral Sea, saw the rise of the Khwarazmian Empire (1077-1231, culturally Persianate, ethnically Turkic),  first as vassals of the Seljuqs, Kara-Khitan, and later as independent rulers,  until the Mongol invasions of the 13th century. Xorazm (or Khorezm, a variant spelling of Khwarezm) is the name of a present day province of Uzbekistan.

Interestingly, the Khwarezmians were briefly in control of Jerusalem, during 1244-1247. (See this for details)

Frederick II of the Holy Roman Empire gained control of Jerusalem by treaty with the Ayyubid (the dynasty founded by Saladin) sultan al-Kamil in 1229. Control of the city changed hands several times between the Ayyubids and the Christians  from 1239 to 1244. In 1244 Jerusalem was in Christian hands.

The Khawarezmi Turks, displaced by the advancing Mongols and allied with the Ayyubids, invaded Jerusalem (The siege of Jerusalem in 1244) on July 11, 1244, and the city's citadel, the Tower of David, surrendered on August 23. The Khwarezmians then ruthlessly decimated the city's population, leaving only 2,000 people, Christians and Muslims, still living in the city. This attack triggered the Europeans to respond with the Seventh Crusade, although the forces of King Louis IX of France never even achieved success in Egypt, let alone advancing as far as Palestine.

Egyptian Ayyubid Sultan al-Malik al-Salih then decided to use his new Mamluk army to eliminate the Khwarezmians, and Jerusalem soon returned to Egyptian Ayyubid rule in 1247.

(source)

The Khanate of Khiva existed in the historical region of Khwarezm from 1511 to 1920, except for a period of Persian occupation by Nadir Shah between 1740–1746.


Panoramic view of Khiva, Khorezm Province, Uzbekistan, a UNESCO World Heritage Site (for high resolution view: here)

First Anglo-Japanese trade agreement (1613): a Bodleian treasure

(source)

In 1613 Shogun Tokugawa Ieyasu made a personal agreement with representatives of the East India Company, granting them trade privileges in Japan.

The East India company had been drawn to Japan by what it imagined would be abundant selling opportunities.

The exhibit at the Bodleian Library, dated 12 October 1613, is thought to be one of two copies given to John Saris, commander of the Clove, which reached Hirado on 11 June 1613, almost two years and two months after leaving England.

Ieyasu's seal is visible at the top of the document, which grants Saris privileges for trade in Japan

Continue here for an image and a translation of the agreement, and a video.

Suharto, Marcos, Mobutu and Sani Abacha: in their own league

Suharto, Marcos, Mobutu and Sani Abacha are in their own league where corruption is concerned. The appalling greed of some past ASEAN (Association of Southeast Asian Nations) leaders (Suharto, Marcos, Joseph Estrada) is world class. This is old news (from 2004), but worth a reminder.

Suharto, Marcos and Mobutu head corruption table with $50bn scams

The Guardian,  26 March 2004 (source)

Mohammed Suharto, Ferdinand Marcos and Mobutu Sese Seko ripped off up to $50bn (£28bn) from the impoverished people of Indonesia, the Philippines and Zaire, a sum equivalent to the entire annual aid budget of the west, anti-bribery campaigners said yesterday.

Releasing a list of the top 10 most corrupt politicians of the past two decades, headed by the former Indonesian dictator, Transparency International warned that the scale of political corruption was undermining hopes for prosperity in the developing world and damaging the global economy.

No country is immune from corruption, the report says, citing the lax controls over political financing in Greece, the close connection between companies and the Bush administration and the unchallenged power of Italy's prime minister, Silvio Berlusconi, over his country's media.

But the most egregious examples of wholesale looting have occurred in the developing world, TI said, depriving the desperately poor of vital state resources.

"The abuse of political power for private gain deprives the most needy of vital public services, creating a level of despair that breeds conflict and violence," said Peter Eigen, TI's chairman.

Most of the names on the list were protected by western governments who turned a blind eye to their criminal activities in exchange for support during the cold war.

Suharto, regarded as a bulwark against communism in Asia, stole as much as $35bn from his impoverished country during his three decades in power, before being deposed in 1998 in a popular uprising that was triggered by the Asian economic crisis.

He was charged with looting up to $500m from the state through various charities controlled by his family, but the judges ruled that he was too ill to stand trial.

Marcos, whose wife's 3,000-piece shoe collection became a byword for the corrupt excesses of his regime, was backed by successive US administrations.

Efforts to track down the estimated $10bn he embezzled during his 20 years in power were frustrated by years of strict banking secrecy laws in Switzerland. In August last year, 14 years after his death, the Swiss courts finally authorised the release of $657m to the Philippines' authorities.

Mobutu cleverly used the threat of an invasion from the then Marxist government of Angola to quieten concerns in the west about his increasingly blatant looting from one of the most resource-rich countries in Africa. Washing ton leaned on the International Monetary Fund to continue lending, despite the doubts of IMF officials.

By the time he was overthrown in 1997, Mobutu had stolen almost half of the $12bn in aid money that Zaire - now the Democratic Republic of Congo - received from the IMF during his 32-year reign, leaving his country saddled with a crippling debt.

Western multinationals must take responsibility for allowing corruption to flourish, TI says. "The corporate sector has a vital role to play in ending the abuse of power," the report says.

Bribery of local officials by western business is still widespread, despite global initiatives to stamp it out, such as the UN convention against corruption. The culture of secrecy surrounding access to resources in the developing world allows corrupt governments to hide revenues from their populations.

Companies from Australia, Sweden, Switzerland, Austria and Canada topped TI's list of bribe-payers last year, despite the introduction of anti-corruption laws to comply with an Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development convention banning bribery of foreign officials.

"We are very much aware that a lot of the responsibility for corruption in the developing world has been with northern companies and northern institutions," said Mr Eigen.

Britain was singled out for dragging its feet on the implementation of the OECD convention. It only outlawed the bribing of officials abroad two years ago, and no one has been prosecuted so far.

Oil, a curse more often than a blessing for poor countries, is a significant factor in corruption. "The flow of oil money is so vast it can distort decision-making in poor producer countries and the rich world alike," the report says.

On the take

Head of state Mohammed Suharto
Place, time Indonesia, 1967-98
Amount $15bn-$35bn

Head of state Ferdinand Marcos
Place, time Philippines, 1972-86
Amount $5bn-$10bn

Head of state Mobutu Sese Seko
Place, time Zaire, 1965-97
Amount $5bn

Head of state Sani Abacha
Place, time Nigeria, 1993-98
Amount $2bn-$5bn

Head of state Slobodan Milosevic
Place, time Serbia, 1972-86
Amount $1bn

Head of state Jean-Claude Duvalier
Place, time Haiti, 1971-86
Amount $300m-$800m

Head of state Alberto Fujimori
Place, time Peru, 1990-2000
Amount $600m

Head of state Pavlo Lazarenko
Place, time Ukraine 1996-97
Amount $114m-$200m

Head of state Arnoldo Alemán
Place, time Nicaragua, 1997-2002
Amount $100m

Head of state Joseph Estrada
Place, time Philippines, 1998-2001
Amount $78m-$80m

Good books of 2011: a list of lists

It's only Thanksgiving (fourth Thursday in November), but lists of best books of the year are already appearing, presumably as timely suggestions for Christmas gifts. This is where I collect them.

*New York Times Book Review: 100 notable books (here) and 10 best books (here)

*Publishers Weekly: here

*Amazon.com: here

*Salon.com: here

*Time: here

*Goodreads: here

Afghanistan - Touch down in flight (video)

Afghanistan – touch down in flight from Augustin Pictures on Vimeo.

Delhi scams, Indian scams against tourists: Indian creativity at its "best"

I should have read this guide (one among many) on Delhi tourist scams before visiting India.

This blog is well worth reading too.

Kolkata's College Street Book Market (Video)

Form Al Jazeera comes a wonderful video on the College Street book market of Kolkata, a place I briefly visited in December 2008.  From the film maker:

College Street in Kolkata is the throbbing home of a maze of old book shops and stalls and this traditional place of learning and trading hosts the largest non-trading book fair in the world every year. But encroaching globalisation, in the form of a modern and fancy book mall being built opposite, casts a shadow over this traditional and treasured place. Is it a threat or an opportunity for the traditional book traders? While India embraces globalisation, what does it mean for ordinary people and the intellectual traditions of this city?